Of Gramsci, Astrologers and Bikinis (Part 2 of 3)

By: Siyanda Pali

In a 1930 letter to his sister-in-law Tatiana, Gramsci once stated that he liked, "to have a concrete interlocutor or adversary." He alluded to the "polemic nature" of his intellectual framework in its entirety. Never has such a statement been so ironic for a people living in such an age as this.

The American-Canadian Economist Kenneth Galbraith once stated that," The only function of economic forecasting is to make astrology look respectable." That irreverent notion has probably never been so clearly illustrated as has been the case over the past 2 years. The Covid-19 pandemic has altered life as we know it. So illuminating has been the experience that this plague will go down in history as one of the most significant events of the 21st century.

Milky Way Galaxy (Hubble Space Telescope)

In November of 2019, I moved to Beijing, China with much aplomb and optimism. It was very much a summer month in South Africa, with its typical, frequent scorchers. However, just a few hours later, I had arrived to a chilly, snow-laden Beijing. I had never experienced such icy temperatures prior to my arrival there, so it's safe to say that my body had to adjust to this winter wonderland. Little did I know what awaited me just a few months along the path.

The Chinese Spring Festival, or the Chinese Lunar New Year, tentatively taking place between January and February of each year, is one of the biggest holidays in Mainland China. In fact, it's so gigantic there is no greater movement of people anywhere else on earth, with the holiday being dubbed the "world's largest human migration". About 385 million Chinese people made the trip to various cities within Mainland China in 2018. There is no doubt that similar numbers were on the cards for the year 2020, with many Chinese workers and students eager to spend the week-long holiday period with loved ones. However, in the background was brewing a crisis so devastating that the government was encouraging citizens to shelve such plans for fear of contagion going from bad to worse. 

There were murmurs of an epidemic which had gripped Wuhan, the capital city of China's centrally-located Hebei province. This respiratory disease, first detected around 31 December 2019, had such cataclysmic consequences that all of Wuhan was placed on lockdown. The death toll began to climb. Within a matter of days, lives were altered forever. The bustling city of Beijing, boasting a population of more than 20 million people, was almost reduced to pin-drop silence. Before we knew it, we would not be working on company premises following the Spring Festival, We would become experts at working online.

By the time the rest of the world reckoned with rising infection and mortality rates, we in China were already well-adept with this new reality. A part of this reality was the tsunami of massive lay-offs from companies which were simply crippled by, among other things, an inability to generate additional revenue in the prevailing conditions at the time, and having to adapt in such circumstances. The International Labour Organisation estimates that some 81 million jobs were lost in the Asia Pacific region alone as a result of Covid-19. Another aspect of this new reality was dealing with ruthless propaganda, which started to blame foreigners for the Coronavirus. Black people were especially mistreated, irrationally so, with some experiencing incessant police harassment, point-blank refusals for admissions at hotels, refusals to access basic services such as buses, forced evictions, with some being forced to find accommodation under the winds and rains of heaven, to sleep under bridges. Despite most imported cases being from Chinese citizens who had returned from abroad, some Africans or people of African descent were subjected to forced testing in 2020,despite having no travel history outside China, or interaction with infected people.

The impact of Covid-19 has also been significant globally. Nations such as Italy, Spain, the UK, and the USA were dealt a crushing blow by Covid-19, as their health systems were often strained to maximum capacity. The loss of life was and still is the greatest tragedy of all. 

The fallout both within China and abroad displayed idiosyncrasies of each nation, battling the same problem. A prime example of this was a test of whether one of the key pillars necessary for access to truthful and timeous information, free speech, was indeed on solid ground. Two cases in China specifically, those of Dr. Li Wenliang, a former Ophthalmologist at the Wuhan Central Hospital, as well as that of Zhang Zhan, a former lawyer and citizen journalist, hold clues for the global community. Dr Li had sent a message to fellow practitioners on 30 December 2019, in a bid to alert them of a potential severe respiratory syndrome resembling the SARS outbreak in Wuhan, and that they ought to protect themselves from infection accordingly. However, within a matter of days, the Wuhan Public Security Bureau ordered him to sign a statement in January 2020, which asserted that he had made disingenuous statements, and that he had disturbed the peace. Dr Li returned to his duties after signing this statement, where he contracted SARS CoV-2,allegedly from a patient. He lost his battle with the virus, and died on 7 February 2020, leading to an outpouring of support, as well as great vexation from Chinese citizens, a great servant of the people was no more. 

Around the same time that this was unfolding, citizen journalist and former lawyer Zhang Zhan gave first-hand accounts of what was taking place in Wuhan via her smartphone as the outbreak wreaked havoc. Her posts ceased in May 2020, with reports that she had been arrested. She was later convicted by a Shanghai court in December 2020 under a charge of "picking quarrels", and sentenced to 4 years imprisonment. Both Zhang Zhan and Dr Li unfortunately paid a heavy price for their erring on the side of truth in that society.

The recovery in 2020 was no less remarkable in Mainland China, with various measures implemented to manage the Coronavirus being rolled out in different cities and provinces accordingly. As such, it was disconcerting to many around the world to note that 2 years later, there were cities which had gone under lockdown, with food shortages and fatalities being reported in a city such as Shanghai, one of China's most developed cities, and a financial hub in Asia. 

To date, more than 500 million cases and 6.29 million deaths as a result of the Coronavirus have been reported globally. The big question, perhaps on the minds of many is: Why was the world so unprepared for such a disaster, and what lessons can be learnt? It is unfortunate that more than 2 years later, some countries are still battling to contain infection rates from the Corona virus. If the adage that "prevention is better than cure" is indeed true, what could be done to prevent a scenario such as the brutality of Covid-19 being unleashed upon humanity, even before it starts?

Perhaps there are industries in which remote work will be a permanent feature. It is not unforeseen that a hybrid model will suit others better, while some will seek to make full use of the advantages of face-to-face and in-person interaction. A silver lining is that the aviation industry, according to IATA (International Air Transport Association), forecasts passenger numbers to reach a 94% level of 2019 figures in 2022, as well as full recovery in 2023. Given our experience, perhaps it is prudent to use the Latin phrase common in Economics circles, ceteris paribus (all things being equal) when making forecasts. 

It was a grave concern that as Africans reported discriminatory behaviour and racism in Mainland China in 2020, as a result of the Covid-19 outbreak, the response from the African Union was underwhelming, conveying a lethargic and incoherent organisation at a moment of crisis for the countless Africans in China and elsewhere in the world. Such a culture needs to change. In spite of this, the pandemic also brought out the best in mankind, with solidarity and camaraderie which will live on in the hearts and minds of many, both in China and across the globe. 

There is no question that the world has experienced great upheavals over the past 2 years, with different nations offering different solutions to a catastrophe such a Covid-19, an enemy felt by all, and visible to none. However, it has become apparent that the world needs strong institutions which will ensure that human rights, human dignity and cooperation ought to remain paramount at all times.

Furthermore, the time is ripe to affirm that institutions which profess to serve all of humanity, such as  the United Nations, must reform as a matter of urgency, in order to ensure that Africa, a continent with a population of 1.4 billion people (16% of the world's population), has a permanent seat at the UN Security Council. The status quo, which paternalistically seeks to set the timetable for Africa's freedom and dignity, is untenable. 

Africa Month: Of Gramsci, Astrologers and Bikinis (Part 1 of 3)

By: Siyanda Pali

In approximately 1 year from now, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) will commemorate  60 years since its inception on 25 May 1963. Egypt will celebrate 69 years since its Revolution Day or National Day on 18 June of 1953. The Federal Republic of Nigeria will celebrate its 62nd year of independence in October of this year, as will the Federal Republic of Somalia on 1 July 2022. The Republic of South Africa marked 28 years of independence on 27 April of this year. These are all significant periods of time. With the hopes and dreams of 1.39 billion people in the balance, this is a befitting time as any to take stock. 

AU headquarters (africa.com)

On the eve of the 20th century, the last decade in particular, the Italian Marxist scholar, philosopher, theorist, thinker and writer Antonio Gramsci was born in Sardinha, Italy. The fourth of 7 sons to Francesco and Guiseppina Gramsci, he entered the world on 22 January 1891. As fate would have it, he was a man who would fight against the odds his entire life.

 At birth, and during the formative years of his life, he battled a disorder, Pott's disease, which caused a lump on his chest and his back. At the time, doctors were convinced this would be the end of him. Remedial measures for this included a harness with straps which girded his deformed frame from the armpit area, among others, from which he was hung from the ceiling as therapy. In the likely event of his demise, a coffin in which he was to be buried was stored by his parents in their house. This was the start of Gramci's life.  

In addition to his personal struggles, mostly related to his health, he also endured a period of family turmoil. His father was unceremoniously arrested for alleged embezzlement in 1898, which forced the young Gramsci to abort his plans to continue his education, finding work as a casual labourer in numerous jobs. He eventually completed his high school education in Cagliari, where he resided with his elder brother Genaro, then a staunch socialist with a military background. However, despite the obvious influence of his brother, the young Gramsci's intellectual posture was not that of a socialist, but rather that of Sardinian nationalism, borne of the discontent of the Sardinian peasantry such as miners by their rapidly developing northern neighbours, which was invariably repressed by the Italian mainland. 

It was in 1911 that Antonio Gramsci won a scholarship to study at the University of Turin. Aged 20, his stance shifted from that of Sardinian nationalism to that of a society divided along class lines: bosses and workers. Despite possessing academic and intellectual chutzpah, Gramsci discontinued his studies at the University of Turin in 1915 at the age of 25 due to mostly the blight of ill-health, financial difficulties as well as increasing political engagements, leaving the university having acquired a vast knowledge of philosophy and history. 

Gramsci later fell foul of Mousoulini's fascist regime, which led to his arrest in 1926, despite his parliamentary immunity, amid an imposition of emergency laws predicated by an alleged assassination attempt on Mussolini's life. The words uttered by the then prosecutor at the trial are perhaps the most famous words uttered at that time. They continue to capture the imagination of thinkers, readers, writers and scholars alike. "For twenty years, we must stop this brain from functioning", were the ironic utterances of the prosecutor. Little did they know that Gramsci's imprisonment would have the complete opposite effect on his intellectual prowess and productivity. He ended up writing more than 3000 pages of history and analysis, as well as more than 30 notebooks.

In the Communist Manifesto, Marx predicts that at some point, the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie. All they had to lose were their chains. He foresaw that they would then implement a new system of economic stratification. There's no doubt that some were hoping that this would be Communism. Perhaps others were hoping for Socialism. The Communist Manifesto was published in 1848. To the surprise of some Neo-marxist scholars, this did not take place in the west during the 19th century, neither did it occur in the 20th century. Why was it that people who were working in intolerable conditions, which may have very well inspired the Communist Manifesto in the first place, remain in such conditions? 

Friederich Engels made a scathing critique of Capitalism in his 1845 book "The Conditions of the Working Class in England". To his credit, it was based upon facts and evidence, which he dutifully gathered from parliamentary reports, chamber of commerce dispatches etc. His goal was to engage in his critique based upon an objective data framework. Engels noted, among other things, that, "They are given damp tenements, basement hovels or attic rooms that are neither water-proof from above or below. Their houses are built in a way that the moist air has no outlet..women made incapable of giving birth, children crippled, men weakened, limbs crushed, entire generations blighted, infected with emaciation and infirmity, merely to fill the purses of the bourgeoisie".  At a broader level, it raised questions about what happens in a society when the full might of the negative externalities of rampant industrialisation in the form of capitalism is at its zenith? It raised questions about basic labour rights in societies.

In spite of the above conditions of despair, Marx's prediction did not come to pass. It became clear among some thinkers and scholars that control over a population extended far beyond the hallowed halls of parliament. It became evident that political control is almost always predicated by cultural control. Gramsci also examines the concept of political control, exploring the question that when there is a dominant class or social group in a society, how does such a class or group rise to power? Why would the proletariat acquiesce to participating in a system which contributes to their repression or oppression? 

The answer to why the latter was true, according to Gramsci, was due to a concept which he referred to as Cultural Hegemony. Gramsci the thinker is probably most well-known for his work on Cultural Hegemony, which was an expansion of 'hegemony' as propounded by Russian Marxist Vladimir Lenin, which described the political leadership of the working class in a democratic revolution. The root of the word 'hegemony' has it's origins from the Greek, which means, "to lead" or "to rule over" according to some translators. In ancient Greece, a hegemon then, was a state with an extraordinary military advantage over another state. It denoted the threat or possibility of physical dominance of one state by another. As such, if the weaker or relatively weaker state did not comply with the demands of the hegemon, they faced the probability of a certain unpleasant future event such as annexation, invasion, being burnt to ashes etc. 

The term 'hegemony' referred to the danger or possibility of physical dominance over a population.  As highlighted by Stephen West, in the modern era in which we live, the definition of hegemony needs to evolve to capture the reality of the status quo. Those who exercise power have come to know that military dominance is but one method of exercising control over a population, and that a far more effective means to do so, is by manipulating the cultural parameters which people have to circumnavigate. To be a human being, among other things, is to live within a certain culture. This then begs the question:  What is a culture? It is a set of norms, structures, ordinances, taboos, values. To paraphrase Stephen West, "it is the sum-total of all the rituals we engage with on a daily basis which all come together to create a cohesive society." To what degree, according to Gramsci, do the current norms and rules exist to reinforce themselves? To what degree do the current rules and norms exist in the minds of the population as nature in the world? To what extent is the reality of the world we live in attributable to nature, and how much of it is attributable to culture?  

The latter are incredibly pertinent questions because according to Gramsci, if a group or class can control the narrative, and convince the layman that the current set of cultural norms is a static, natural way in which the world is or works, there is little chance of protest, seeking justice or change. 

To explain nature, Jim Collins provides useful input in his book, "Good to Great: Why some companies make the leap, and others do not". He states," To use an analogy, the "Leadership is the answer to everything" perspective is the modern equivalent of the "God is the answer to everything" perspective that held back our scientific understanding of the physical world in the Dark Ages. In the 1500's, people ascribed all events they didn't understand to God. Why did the crops fail? God did it. Why did we have an earthquake? God did it. What holds the planets in place? God. But with the Enlightenment, we began the search for a more scientific understanding -physics, chemistry, biology and so forth. Not that we became atheists, but we gained deeper understanding of how the universe ticks. Similarly, every time we attribute everything to "Leadership," we're no different to people from the 1500s. We're simply admitting our ignorance. Not that we should become leadership atheists (leadership does matter)".

According to Gramsci, dominant social classes have the ability to dictate cultural norms. As such, those born in such societies tend to associate these cultural norms as nature. They often see things as 'the way the world is', something one ought to learn to accept. 

The latter, as per Gramsci, is the reason why Marx's prediction did not come true. It is why the proletariat never broke free from the chains which oppressed or suppressed them. They had accepted them as the "natural state of the world they lived in." 

According to Gramsci, cultural norms become the 'common sense' which the proletariat use to rationalise their position in the world. When the 'common sense' of one's world serves to justify the dominance of one class by another, with any reasonable critique made of the status quo met with the unsatisfactory response "that's how the world is" or "that's how the world works", ones very being becomes a pillar upholding cultural hegemony. Gramsci does not necessarily purport that life should be one without any exertion, challenge or difficulty. However, the more plausible question would be: how challenging, strenuous or difficult does life have to be? What aspects of one's life, accepted as culture, does one accept in their life, and as a result, only benefits in a highly skewed manner, the interests of a dominant group in a society? 

One of the best examples of this is the prevalence of overt and subliminal racism in a society. It permeates every aspect of everyday life, and navigating this is no small feat in South Africa, Africa or anywhere else in the world for that matter. 

In 1992, Nelson Mandela, Tito Mboweni and Saki Macozoma were part of a delegation which represented South Africa at the World Economic Forum in Davos. Mr Mandela was to appear with a panel of other speakers such as FW De Klerk and Prince Mangosuthu Buthelezi. The then future Minister of Labour, Tito Mboweni and Saki Macozoma pursuaded Nelson Mandela to tone down his rhetoric on nationalisation. While at Davos, having caught wind of the ANC's economic plans, Li Peng, China's Premier at the time, requested the chairperson of the WEF to arrange a meeting with Nelson Mandela, during which he shared that from China's own experience, perhaps nationalisation was not the best route to take. This sentiment was echoed by the Vietnamese Prime Minister. After these discussions, Mandela beckoned to the ANC delegation that they ought to "forget this nationalisation thing, [and] focus on the basic needs of our people". Shortly afterwards, the team was off to South Africa, and following some deliberations and the Nasrec Conference, a policy document, 'Ready to Govern' was born.

What an awesome responsibility was placed squarely upon the shoulders of South Africa's first democratically elected government. In essence, they had to conceptualise a new country, after centuries of colonial and apartheid rule. Some aspects were handled masterfully, while others can and should be improved. 

The importance of Gramsci's work as a scholar is perhaps useful for not only South Africa, after 28 years of democratic rule, but also for the African continent, with the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) formed in 1963, and its successor, the African Union, formed in 2002 in Durban, South Africa. By pausing to consider what aspects of our lives in actual fact constitute nature and what aspects constitute culture, and deeply interrogate Gramsci's theory of Cultural Hegemony, perhaps we can make strides towards crystalising what our values are, ensuring that the national democratic revolution can find expression in South Africa, and across Africa.